Hamblin 8

remember to notice what stage a particular technology is in:
research--development--production--deployment--operational use

Herbicides were widely used in Vietnam--more than 20 million gallons, about 15% of the land was sprayed
much research went on to find new herbicides, but the new ones didn't come into use

there was criticism of the use of herbicides to kill both crops and natural vegetation--environmental damage

• the governments using these weapons argued that they didn't count as biological or chemical warfare because they harmed plants, not people (and the effect was the same as cutting down trees)
  
• the US and Britain wanted to find defoliants which would cause the leaves to fall off plants without killing them
• to prevent ambushes both by increasing visibility and preventing guerrilla fighters from moving in secret

• 20% of mangroves dead
• 50% of mature hardwoods in the Saigon area

Military effectiveness

• did this actually help us in the war?
  
• did not succeed in reducing food supplies to the enemy
• harmed harmed civilians who lived near enemy strongholds, who were often defined as sympathizers
• harm done became public with the Meselson study in 1970

Nixon's response:

• move away from biological and chemical weapons research because they were a rallying point for protest, protect research on nuclear weapons
• the US was one of the leaders in negotiating the Geneva Convention but the Senate didn't ratify it until 1975 (military and industrial objections had influenced the Senate)
  
• controversy over whether herbicides and tear gas were prohibited by the Geneva Convention
  
• more bad publicity: several scandals about the danger of chemical weapons deployed overseas ready for use
  
• scientists were debating whether research on chemical and biological weapons was a perversion of science
• Nixon often used rhetoric of global catastrophe and wanted to maintain US leadership in environmental negotiations
• example of Nixon's political scheming with environmental issues
  
• distract from negative publicity about Vietnam and make the US look good relative to the Soviet Union
• this meant talking about environmental issues on a global scale via international negotiations (not focusing on local issues)

Thanks to a student for researching what happened to the Scottish island contaminated with Anthrax!

The British poured formaldehyde (a toxic and corrosive compound that evaporates quickly and is broken down by sunlight) watered down with sea water onto the island until it was clean. They tested the soil afterwards, and performed tests with live sheep who survived after grazing on the island. The island was then sold back to the family of it's original owners for the price they bought it at, 500 pounds. I found this interesting, because it gives a little picture into what the impact of chemical/biological warfare could have on a country.