World War I
Impact of technology on war (discussion notes):
technology threatens everyone, for example nuclear
weapons
wars are shorter
weapons are much more accurate--you don't waste as much
ammunition,
efficiency
you can target military not civilian targets
at first when long range weapons were introduced casualty rate
was
high--then better strategies were developed
technology tends to benefit offense first, then defense has to
catch up
made war less personal (though depersonalization is a military
principle
anyway), but our standards of protection for civilians have
gone up
ground forces play a less central role
we can attack with much less loss of life
Impact of war on technology:
war got the government into the business of doing
research
war speeds technological innovation (?)
The Civil War was significantly impacted by
technology, particularly railroads and more accurate
guns. Yet
when World War I
came the U.S. found itself behind in military technology.
World War I started in 1914, US entered April
1917, Armistice Dec. 1918.
- The war quickly settled down to a
trench
warfare (photo)
stalemate due to the use of
machine
guns and barbed wire, and technology seemed to be the
only way out.
- as well as airplanes and poison gas,
tanks and
submarines were developed into useful weapons
- The war therefore led to the first major
wartime efforts to develop technology for military use
French tank
Poison
gas
- A few months after the war began the
French
apparently used gas against the Germans and the
Germans retaliated in kind.
- In the 9th month of the war the Germans
released a cloud of chlorine gas--which causes choking--on
French
troops who retreated in panic, leaving behind perhaps 5,000
dead.
A four mile gap in the line was opened, but the Germans had
not brought
forward enough reserves to exploit it and the Allies
repaired the break.
- At first troops wore makeshift masks of
handkerchiefs wetted with urine and tied over nose and
mouth.
- Germany was widely criticized for breaking the
Hague
Conventions of 1899.
- In mid-1915 Germans started using
phosgene,
which causes severe lung damage, and both sides developed
gas masks.
- By the end of 1916 a variety of weapons
were
in use by both sides. Germans introduced mustard
gas--could cause
burns to exposed skin even when a soldier was protected by a
mask.
- This quickly became a research
race.
It started with the US
Bureau of Mines working on adapting mining equipment.
- A central lab was created in fall 1917 at
American University--at peak employed 1200 scientists.
Developed
a new gas, Lewisite, that poisoned through the skin, simpler
ways of
producing mustard gas, etc.
- Chemical Warfare Service created July
1918--university chemists and Bureau of Mines personnel were
given
commissions.
- In all as many as 50 different gases were
used--poison-gas causalities 1.3 million with 92,000 deaths.
- After the war chemists were proud of
their
contribution to the nation--wanted ongoing research.
Argued that
chemical weapons were humane (and effective) because they
disabled
soldiers rather than killing them. They didn't get the
continuing
high level of research they wanted.
- A strong reaction against the use of gas
took over instead. The Geneva Protocol--an
international protocol
signed in 1925 prohibiting the use in war of "asphyxiating,
poisonous
and other gasses"
and of "bacteriological methods of warfare."
- The treaty held through World War II but use of poison
gas
is a difficult issue today. Fear becomes an issue even
when it is
not
used: seven
Israelis suffocated to death due to improper use of gas
masks during
Iraqi
attacks in the Gulf War.
German signal corps
soldiers placing their carrier pigeons in a shelter during a gas
attack
The airplane
(my page) had been
invented in the U.S., but the army had shown very little
interest in
its military potential.
- European countries had done much more,
and
in
1915 the U.S. realized it was behind and created an
organization called
the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics to
jump-start the
production
of military aircraft.
- forced a patent pool--Manufacturers
Aircraft
Association--to allow the best technologies to be used
- the Curtis Company designed a training
plane, the JN-4, but battle planes were built on a British
design
- all of the countries involved struggled
to
figure out how to make effective use of aircraft--new
strategies had to
be developed by pilots
and
integrated by generals
- mass production of aircraft was well
underway in the U.S. when the war ended--2091 planes had
been shipped
to France and 1041 were awaiting shipment
- After the war the NACA became a research
agency doing applied science research in aviation
Curtis JN-4 Aircraft, World War I
The Navy also decided it needed to encourage
research
- Thomas Edison
said he
had a plan for preparedness but that he was reluctant to
discuss the
terrible devices he had in mind. War could be
mechanized with
labor-saving devices
- In 1915 the Navy established the Naval
Consulting Board
- the board was to consist of "Civilian
Experts on Machines" who would originate ideas and
critically examine
ideas submitted by others--11 professional societies each
named two
members. These
were engineers and business leaders, not scientists
- the Board had a big fight about building
its
own laboratory, but the laboratory that was eventually built
continued
after
the war as the Naval
Research Laboratory
- the effort that got the most public
attention to screen inventions submitted by the
public--Edison believed
that American inventors could win the war
- 110,000 inventions were submitted, 110
deemed worthy of development, only one reached
production--an aircraft
simulator invented by W. Guy Ruggles
- one of the Board's largest projects was
trying to find new methods of submarine detection
- they also sponsored research on
gyroscopic
stabilization, leading to the first primitive autopilots for
aircraft ( Lawrence Sperry
proved they didn't work too well)
World War I British Submarine
Meanwhile scientists felt unappreciated and the
National Academy of Sciences (an honorary society created during
the
Civil War) established the National Research Council in 1916 to
show
what science could contribute
- Scientists wanted to show how valuable
science is: George Ellery Hale (an astronomer) wrote: "I
really believe
this is the greatest chance we have ever had to advance
research in
America"
- they also focused on the problem of
submarine detection--German U-Boats sunk over a million tons
of Allied
and neutral merchantmen in the first quarter of 1917
- the NRC brought in professors from
universities to work on the problem
- a young mathematician named Max
Mason had the idea of
a
listening device that could focus sound--he build something
that looked
like a trombone
- the final device had a range of 3 miles
and
was very successful. Similar technology was developed
for
artillery ranging
- scientists felt they had proved the
scientific research approach to developing new technology
this page written and copyright © Pamela E. Mack
History
323
last updated 2/25/2005