the story is both invention and also why did people invest in building factories using new inventions?
With the experience of the IR, chasing after profit became a more common approach.

That shift made businesses more open to new technology
cause--businesses interested in new technology, effect--inventors go invent new things

• the technological advances of the early industrial revolution were fairly simple
• what was different was the willingness of businessmen to innovate and take risks
  

to what extent did new technology cause the British industrial revolution?

• a necessary part rather than a cause
  
• what caused new technology to be invented and put into use
• how exactly does the new technology relate to the economic growth

Textile factories were the first stage of the takeoff of the industrial revolution

• Invention of new technologies
• People had the money to buy things
• Cheap colorful cotton cloth was a new product people wanted to buy, and Britain put tariffs on cotton cloth imported from India to protect Britain's woolen cloth industry
  
• People were able to move to jobs so there were people to work in the new factories
• relatively high wages encouraged the invention of new machines
  
• Colonies provided raw material (often using slave labor) and markets
  
• More businesses focused only on profit and were willing to take the risk of developing new products
  

Snowball effect:

• the British industrial revolution was not one technology but many
• each new development led to developments in other industries
• so the change grew bigger and bigger and more unstoppable
• what could have stopped it was running out of resources, but Britain was rich in the necessary resources (iron, coal for energy, raw materials from the empire...)
  

• the first big industry was cotton textile factories, though other kinds of factories developed as well
• the early factories were powered by water wheels (steam engines reached a level of development useful for powering factories after 1785)
  
• machines had been used some by workers who did piece work at home with spinning wheels and hand looms.  The bottleneck was spinning.
  
• the key invention brought the workers together into a factory was the invention of machines for spinning that could spin more than one thread at a time plus the application of water power first to spinning and then to weaving
• James Hargreaves, Spinning Jenny , invented 1764-1770, was at first a machine powered by a person turning the crank
  

 Spinning Jenny

• Roger Arkwright, Water Frame, 1769, was designed for waterpower and could spin lots of coarse thread
  
• Samuel Crompton, Mule , 1774-1779 (historical video), combined the technologies of the jenny and the water frame to spin better quality thread with water power
  
• mass production lowers cost
  
• Edmund Cartwright, Power Loom, 1786-1788

PEM photo--power loom (Slater Mill)

• 1783 machines developed to continuously print a pattern onto a long roll of cloth
  
• when/why organize work into factories?
• consistent product because you have supervision of the workers
• a factory can have large machines and a large water wheel powering them, and later a steam engine
  
• more control--workers work on the schedule you set
• less transportation needed
• but factory is less safe
• expensive to build, and there may be a need for housing for the workers, water supply...
• quality might be lower
• workers are in one place and can organize
  

• now you have mass production and the price of cloth goes way down--leads to a consumer revolution
  
• why do people buy it?
• better than wool underwear
• easy to print with patterns, create a consumer revolution
  
• With these technologies the industry took off--by 1833 237,000 people were employed in cotton textile factories in England
• from the 1790s on, the majority of production was exported--the empire provided a market for very large scale production
  
• this was a whole new way of life (more on this in the next chapter)
  
• 46% of workers were women, 15% children under the age of 13 ( Child Labor )
• wages were barely enough for a family to survive if all members over the age of 8 worked
• the new industrial cities grew very rapidly in population--providing physical resources and social institutions for those people did not keep up
  
• in some areas 1/2 to 3/4 of worker families lived in a single room with no plumbing (dumped their chamber pot into the street or gutter)

• science mindset encourages trying new ways of doing things
  
• scientific method helps systematically explore how to solve a problem
• scientific theory was not yet much use, was not advanced enough
• the steam engine was invented without science that could describe how it worked
• thermodynamics is invented later to explain how the engine works
  

• there was some earlier formal scientific research that made the steam engine possible (an understanding of air pressure), but it was done more than 50 years earlier
  
• the key formal science for analyzing a steam engine (thermodynamics) wasn't there when it was invented, but rather was invented in order to figure out how to make steam engines more efficient
  
• formal science owes more to the steam engine than the steam engine owes to formal science
  

• Pierre Gassendi understood air pressure as the motion of particles in a gas

• barometer was invented by Torricelli in 1644: fill a tube completely with mercury, and turn it upside down into a bowl of mercury.  The mercury won't all spill out, since air can't get into the tube, but if you have a very long tube the column of mercury will only be 30 inches high.  This measures the pressure of the atmosphere. 
  
• Magni independently invented the barometer and argued that it had a vacuum at the top
• scientists were interested in proving that Aristotle was wrong, that it was possible to create a vacuum
  
• Otto von Guericke showed the power of air pressure in 1657--watch the video of a recreation--when he pumped air out of a metal sphere to create a vacuum the air pressure on the outside of the sphere compared to the vacuum inside was so great that teams of horses couldn't pull the two halves of the sphere apart

• To understand, do this experiment:
• Take a plastic container, put a little water in it, and put it in the microwave until the water boils
• take it carefully out of the microwave (without burning yourself) and put a lid on it tightly while it is still steaming hot
• let it  cool and you will see that the lid is pulled down (curves downward into the container)
  
• When you put the lid on the container was full of steam
• when it cooled the steam condensed and turned back into water
• the water takes up much less space than the steam, so the lid is pulled down
• an atmospheric steam engine works on the same principle--fill the cylinder with steam and then condense it
• have a piston that moves in the cylinder--when the steam condenses the piston is pulled down
• attach the piston to a water pump so that each time it is pulled down it pulls up the handle of the water pump and pumps water

• The first need for steam engines was to pump water out of coal mines
  
• Thomas Savery built the first workable engine, using an odd design without a cylinder and piston--using the steam directly to pull up the water.  Savery got a patent and got royalties from the builders of later engines.
  
• Newcomen Engine (about 1712) filled a cylinder with steam and then condensed it to draw the piston down.  1/2% efficient, but widely used to pump water out of coal mines.  By 1733 there were 125 Newcomen engines in use, by 1775 about 600 had been built. Animated,  video
• some scientific knowledge about atmospheric pressure/vacuum was necessary, but it was only one part of building an engine
• Watt Engine (1774) had had a separate condenser, making the engine much more efficient.  animation
  
• James Watt later added:
• sun and planet gear converted reciprocating (up and down) motion into rotary motion to power machines
• automatic control mechanism--flyball governor--to keep the engine running at a fairly constant speed
• double-acting engine made for much smoother power--close the cylinder above the piston and put steam into the top part of the cylinder while condensing steam in the bottom part and then vice versa
• more efficient engine using a separate condenser

The pottery industry is another example of the difference that factories made and the eagerness to copy products from Asia

• British businessmen worked to copy Chinese export porcelain
• they had to figure out the science of clay and glazes
• but some inventions were also made using traditional craft methods
• very consumer driven, first demand for copies of Chinese patterns, then for new patterns and souvenirs

• the investors who financed settlement were looking for profit, which came from rice, indigo, sugar, tobacco and cotton--very labor intensive crops
• slaves not only provided labor but also important agricultural expertise particularly in hot climates
• Eli Whitney's cotton gin made growing cotton more profitable, causing slavery to take off as an economic system
  
• cotton exhausted the soil quickly so more and more land was seized from Native Americans and cultivation moved west across the south all the way to Texas. Slaves were separated from their families and sold west

What went back to England?

• Some profits, though profits from plantations wasn't a huge part of capital for the industrial revolution (about 5% of national income)

•     investment opportunities--people from England invested in slaves, trade in goods made by slaves
•     raw materials: By 1840, the South grew 60 percent of the world's cotton and provided 70 percent of the cotton consumed by the British textile industry (it was large-scale slavery that made the US South the most successful cotton-growing region in the world)
•     a market for low quality textiles produced by the early factories

•     before the civil war the Mississippi Valley was home to more millionaires per capita than anywhere else in the United States
•     control of labor: plantation owners tracked the productivity of each worker, set rules for when to whip workers to get maximum productivity
•     experimented with how much and what food they provided to slaves
•      "bales per prime hand" was a key measure of productivity
•     During the 60 years leading up to the Civil War, the daily amount of cotton picked per enslaved worker increased 2.3 percent a year (a slave in 1862 might pick 4 times more cotton than one in 1801)
•     when the price of cotton rose slaves were driven harder
•     The Visible Hand by Alfred Chandler--argued that modern was copied from the railroads who copied it from the military
•     in fact many of the modern management techniques were developed on plantations

•     modern bookkeeping methods were first developed by plantations
•     plantation owners calculated the expected depreciation of slaves as they got older
•     slaves were mortgaged more often than real estate in colonial times
•     Thomas Jefferson mortgaged 150 of his enslaved workers to build Monticello--to a Dutch firm
•     by the 19th century such mortgages were pooled into mortgage backed securities (bonds) that were sold in England and Europe
•     plantation owners made some of their money with financial products like letters of credit
•     moving money around the country and internationally when the US did not have a single currency

•     much more focus on profit, developing tools to achieve it
•     globalization
•     more sophisticated capitalism makes development of new technologies easier