• built far from cities where the sky was darker
• Mount Wilson was funded by the Carnegie Institution, a private foundation
  

division of labor

• young men hired to do the night observing and gather data for astronomers
• women computers hired to do the calculations
• photographic plates made it possible to work with data on a mass scale
• the director of the Harvard College Observatory, Edward Pickering, hired women high school graduates
• they could be paid less than men and were patient with repetitive work
• funded by donations from rich businessmen
  

Research on low temperatures also required more equipment and staff

• funded by the refrigeration industry
• race to get to lower temperatures
• main goals were not practical, but there was spin-off of practical technologies
  
• hired and organized a staff of lab assistants

Even Rutherford shifted from small science to big science

• before 1898 Rutherford's experiments fit on a laboratory bench
  
• funding came from a rich tobacco dealer, William Macdonald
• got rich processing tobacco (into pipe and chewing tobacco) from the southern US, which he was able to buy even during the Civil War because he was in Canada, while processors in the northern US were cut off from supply
  
• supported McGill University with scholarships and new buildings for chemistry and physics
• provided the physics department with money for assistants, mechanics, and supplies
• the physics department hired Rutherford from England in 1898
  
• as Rutherford's research expanded he organized his lab by dividing up topics and papers often had 2 or 3 authors
• he moved to Manchester University in 1907 and continued to work on a large scale, often with material no one else could afford
  
• the gold foil experiment was actually in 1911, after he already had a Nobel Prize

keys to big science

• many people, bureaucratically organized
• large-scale funding, from where?
• from rich individuals
• from corporations that see some benefit in the research
• from private foundations